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Life or death?
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| 10 June 1998 |
Life or death?
Police
departments need to be more proactive if they are to reverse the growing
trend of officers committing suicide. John M. Violanti
reports
Police officers all over the world are exposed to the potential for violence every working day, yet an even more dangerous enemy lurks inside their own ranks: suicide. Police suicide can devastate the morale of entire agencies and leave other officers with intense feelings of guilt, remorse, and disillusionment.
Under conditions of stress, danger, and availability of firearms, one might expect an increased risk of police suicide. Research statistics show that officers kill themselves more than they are killed by others. Studies have shown that the risk of police suicide is over three times that of the general population and the risk appears to have increased in the last decade. There is also suspicion that some police suicides are intentionally misclassified as accidents or undetermined deaths in order to protect suicide victims and survivors.
There are some general indicators which have been found to be associated with an increased risk of suicide.
* Age,
race and sex - male officers, 50 years and older, are at highest risk,
while females of any age are at lowest risk. Caucasian males have the highest
suicide rate of all demographic groups.
* Psychiatric
symptoms - persons with clinical depression are at highest risk. Depression
is the most common warning sign of suicide, followed by those exhibiting
symptoms of schizophrenia, such as disorganisation, confusion, chaos and
hallucinations.
* Stress
- recent stress including daily hassles, life events, and traumatic events.
Examples are a recent job loss or illness. The experience of a traumatic
incident may also precipitate suicide.
* Prior
suicidal thoughts/attempts - a person's potential for suicide is higher
if they have had previous suicide attempts, have been considering suicide
as an option, if they have a specific plan and means readily available,
and if a truly lethal means is contemplated (for example, a police officer
who always has a gun readily available). Each attempt increases the likelihood
of success.
* Available
resources - a person who is isolated or has no means of social support
has a greater risk for suicide, as someone whose friends and family are
openly hostile and rejecting.
Andre Ivanoff,
of Columbia University, and Sergeant William Tighe, of the New York City
Police Department, conducted a study asking officers to rank reasons for
police suicide. The results (in ascending order) were: depression; relationship
conflicts or losses; access to firearms; drug/alcohol abuse; financial
difficulties; involvement in corruption investigations; difficulty with
police.
Their research
suggests that suicide prevention efforts should focus on identifying factors
that can be changed, such as knowledge and identification of risk factors
and attitudes towards seeking help with personal problems.
Although recruit
screening in many police departments involves psychological testing, personality
factors and family history (for example, family violence, substance abuse,
etc) should also be noted for tracking high-risk officers in the future.
In service, officers being selected for special duty (SWAT teams, undercover,
etc), should get additional psychological assessment to determine their
suitability for such assignments.
Departments
should track high-risk officers (for example, officers with marital difficulties,
substance abuse, work problems, and other life problems) so that timely
support can be provided. A behaviour profile should be reviewed every six
months to determine which officers are at risk of suicide. There should
be documentation of changes in behaviour and problems. Consultation with
mental health professionals is essential when a police officer exhibits
inappropriate behaviour or behavioural change that suggests potential suicide.
The risk of
suicide certainly increases because police officers have ready access to
firearms. The practice of some departments requiring officers to carry
firearms off-duty may be a target for police organisational policy change,
as such immediate access can facilitate impulsive suicidal tendencies.
An informal
survey of four large urban police departments indicated that none of them
kept statistical records of off-duty use of firearms by their officers.
Seminars should
be given for police recruits and their families so they understand the
psychological effects of police work. Marital problems can be a most significant
stress-producing factor in the suicidal police officer. The New York City
study, for example, found that 58 per cent of police suicides in New York
City were the result of relationship problems with family or significant
others.
Counselling
services should be made available to families and officers. Training which
can help officers recognise and avoid psychological factors leading to
suicide is important. Training should include recognition of psychological
depression, communication skills, conflict resolution, and intimate relationship
maintenance.
Supervisors
can be an important source of support for line officers and should be trained
to recognise the warning signs of suicide and suggest confidential referrals.
Stress awareness
is a psychologically sound method to help individuals cope. A stress education
programme should include identification of stress, the value and techniques
of physical exercise, benefits of proper nutrition, interpersonal communication
methods, and coping styles. Stress education on the family level should
include identification of the police function, problems commonly encountered
in police marriages, methods for effective communication, and the family
as a source of support.
Executive level
training in suicide awareness is also important. Executives can play a
very important role in supportive functions, including organisational change
and assistance with line officer problems. 'Support from the top' can give
officers an impression that the organisation cares. Also, executives are
not immune; they too have the potential for suicide.
Not only can
an effective intervention effort save officers' lives, but it can also
safeguard agencies from the devastating effects of suicide.
To help officers
in taking the first difficult step to intervention, the police organisation
should develop and increase accessibility to confidential psychological
services. Essentially, officers need a safe place to go for help.
Suicide rates
are high among retired officers. Retirement is not an easy transition for
most people, and even more difficult for police officers. Many do not have
skills for other types of employment and are unprepared for retirement.
Informational seminars and counselling should be made available to officers
as early as five years prior to retirement. Spouses and other family members
should be included in such seminars.
As is true with
addressing any problem, the first step is to recognise that the problem
exists. With regard to police suicide, police departments must take that
important first step. Even one police suicide is too many, and agencies
must be proactive in their attempt to prevent such tragedies.
Figure 2.
Reasons for police suicide - ranked in ascending order
1.
Depression 2.
Relationship conflicts or bereavements 3.
Access to firearms 4.
Drug/alcohol abuse 5.
Financial difficulties 6.
Involvement in corruption inquiries 7.
Difficulty with colleagues
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